Acknowledgements
The research conducted in this paper included fragments of personal experiences and passion regarding neurodegeneration. Special shoutout to Professor Smith and all my classmates in Music and the Mind for making this possible.
Homo
sapiens is an abnormally resilient species. Over hundreds of millenia, our
ancestors have braved both calamity and conflict. In some ways, however, humans
have yet to come to terms with the never-ending natural cycle of aging.
Following the trends of development and globalization over the past century,
this statement validates itself in a variety of manifestations. With aging
populations worldwide and impending demographic crises in countries such as
South Korea and even the United States, the focus of medicine has increasingly
pivoted toward the sinister maladies affecting older people. One of the most
common yet least understood of these maladies is dementia-type
neurodegeneration (Wyss-Coray, 2016).
Dementia-type
neurodegeneration is a family of neurological disorders which causes cognitive
impairment from the chronic wasting of neuronal networks in the central nervous
system, oftentimes from aggregation of tau isoforms and amyloid-beta plaques.
The prevalent crown jewel of this malady family is Alzheimer’s disease (AD),
though the definition extends to frontotemporal (FTD) and vascular dementias.
The telltale signs of dementia-type neurodegeneration include but are not
limited to: memory loss, behavioral alterations, and impaired communication
(Perna et al., 2023). For the purposes of this systematic review, dementia-type
neurodegeneration should be defined and treated distinctly from
neurodegenerative movement disorders including Parkinson’s and Huntington’s;
discussion of treatments and later music therapy will focus primarily on
Alzheimer’s disease. While dementia typically involves a host of familial and
environmental influences, the strongest risk factor for dementia-type diseases
by far is age. The association between neurodegeneration and age is so enduring
that 349.2 million patients struggle with neurodegenerative disorders, with
more than 16% of cases characterized as AD (Gadhave et al., 2024). Zooming in
on the United States, Americans above the age of 55 have a 42% risk of
developing dementia. As the US population ages along with its global
counterparts, the prevalence of dementia is expected to double by 2060 (Fang et
al., 2025). While there is no cure for dementia or Alzheimer’s disease, there
have been promising treatments tackling the cellular and molecular basis of
neurodegeneration, which will be discussed in the next section.
One
of the main reasons why there is yet to be a definitive therapy or treatment
for dementia-type neurodegeneration is because there is no true consensus on
the progression of such diseases. The human brain along with the rest of the
central nervous system may be considered as one of the “final frontiers”;
despite progress, there is still much to be learned about neurodegenerative
diseases, analogous to space and the depths of the ocean. Back in the 1980s,
scientists theorized that Alzheimer-type dementia was caused by plummeting
concentration of acetylcholine (AcH), one of the most significant neurochemical
neurotransmitters, in the synaptic cleft of neurons. A landmark 1981 clinical
study indicated that the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme tasked
with the breakdown of acetylcholine, dramatically improved the memory and
cognitive function of Alzheimer’s patients (Summers et al., 1981). This opened
a new Pandora’s Box in neuropharmacology, and cholinesterase inhibitors were
soon utilized to provide relief from the advanced symptoms exhibited in
Alzheimer’s patients. In recent years, newfound knowledge about Alzheimer’s
disease pathogenesis has paradoxically elongated and complicated the trajectory
toward new treatments. As a first focal point, cellular and molecular analysis
formulated new theories of the mechanics of Alzheimer’s disease. One of the
prevailing theories involves the aggregation of amyloid–beta plaques, which in
turn converts functional tau proteins into toxic tau tangles (Bloom, 2014).
Amyloid plaques and toxic tau tangles inhibit the transport of nutrients and
signals within neurons, ultimately resulting in the signature cognitive
impairment and memory loss associated with dementia. In the normal human brain,
both amyloid-beta and tau exist in non-pathological conformations; the central
enigma lies in how and why the conversion between benign and calamitous forms
happens. Understanding tau-tangles and amyloid plaques has given neurologists
more hope for possible comprehensive treatments, such as specific anti-tau and
anti-amyloid antibodies (Esquer et al., 2023). A final factor contributing to
the development of Alzheimer’s disease is the activity of microglial cells,
which function as the immune system unique to nervous tissue. Studies have
established strong correlations between neuroinflammation caused by hyperactive
microglia and the progression of late-stage AD, the effect of which circles
back around to microglia, which engulf toxic-tau-overrun neurons
(Sanchez-Mejias, 2016). A host of variables and overlapping theories contribute
to the currently accepted perspective on AD from the American Psychological
Association and the American Neurological Association, which have yet to be
validated and agreed upon by the wider scientific community.
Even as new
treatments are in the development pipeline, the second focal point is that
there is yet to be a therapeutic drug targeting all physiological aspects of
Alzheimer’s disease. Cholinesterase inhibitors appeared to improve patients’
cognitive function starting in the 1980s, but more recent studies suggest they
may also be highly toxic to the liver (Malik et al., 2022). Similar problems
arise with tau- and amyloid-specific antibodies; at high concentrations, such
antibodies become neurotoxic. The review conducted by Esquer et al. examined
the treatment effect of anti-tau antibodies, but acknowledged the effect’s
clinical irrelevance along with a majority of trials having failed (Esquer et
al., 2023). Another ray of hope shines from the Kessler lab at Northwestern’s
Feinberg School of Medicine, currently investigating the role of upstream
proteins including Bone Morphogenic Protein (BMP) on regeneration of nervous
tissue (the author of this paper works as an undergraduate researcher in the
Kessler Lab). Inhibiting BMP activity with a protein known as Noggin had a
significant effect on mouse models affected by neurodegenerative disease.
Noggin treatment accelerated neurogenesis, while reducing tau pathology and
associated neuronal death (Affaneh et al., 2024). However promising Noggin may
be, it has only been tested in mice and must be delivered across the
blood-brain barrier without direct injection, meaning it will take years before
a modulated Noggin drug is approved by the FDA. Given that current treatments
and pharmacological interventions cause adverse side effects and target only
few of many factors in the rise of dementia-type neurodegenerative disorders,
non-invasive care to improve patients’ qualities of life may well be the better
option for now. Cognitive interventions falling into the categories of
training, stimulation, and rehabilitation were found to produce small yet
consistent effects for aging patients, both healthy and cognitively impaired
(Alves et al., 2013). Music therapy, a combination of these cognitive
interventions, has been applied to movement disorders and mental health
conditions over the past few decades, raising the question of whether it could
alleviate the symptoms of dementia.
Mankind’s
organic relationship with music has hardly diminished since its origins in
prehistoric civilizations, even as genres and tastes have rapidly evolved.
While even the most influential and convincing studies on music therapy have
drawn crowds of skeptics, a collection of preserved memories and archaeological
evidence suggests music in Ancient Greece and Medieval Byzantium was
systematically employed to heal patients and modulate moods (Thaut, 2015). As
scientific revolutions of the 19th and 20th centuries took root, medicine began
to shift away from alternative care and towards the development of life-saving,
physiology-altering drugs. The ongoing struggle against dementia-type
neurodegenerative diseases thus begs the question: could “primitive” yet potent
music therapy function as an effective bulwark against the worst manifestations
and symptoms?
In his book, I
Heard There Was a Secret Chord, Daniel Levitin describes music as the
universal language of man, with its own wonderfully complex syntax. As music
carries its own melody, meter, and structure, each composition possesses its
own unique fingerprint. A nostalgic piano rock ballad by Billy Joel likely has
a very different effect on listeners than one of Mozart’s famous arias. Music
therapy observes and adjusts its forms entirely based on its effect, and has
been applied in an increasing amount of clinical studies over the past two
decades (Li et al., 2021). Music therapy is rooted in the activation of the
brain due to the multisensory stimuli it provides. Specifically, scientists
studying dementia and Alzheimer’s are intrigued by music therapy’s capabilities
of invoking emotions and neuronal network activation (Zaatar et al.,
2023). The benefits of neuronal network
activation can be best explored by analyzing the effect of music therapy on
specific conditions endemic to Alzheimer’s patients, including but not limited
to: memory loss, cognitive impairment, hormonal imbalance, and decline in
social-emotional well-being.
The
effects of music therapy on patients with Alzheimer’s disease have been
measured on several different criteria and impacted symptoms. One of the most
significant symptoms as aforementioned is the progressive loss of memory. Here,
music seems to be an exception to the hallmark confusion and impermeable memory
fog of Alzheimer’s, as depicted in Joseph Jebelli’s book, In Pursuit of
Memory. Physiological reviews suggest this is the result of a slower rate
of neurodegeneration in the caudal anterior cingulate, responsible for musical
processing and consolidation (Jacobsen et al., 2015). Amyloid-beta and toxic
tau tangles, the lurking pathologies of Alzheimer’s and dementia, slowly
suffocate the human brain yet spare music memory regions of cortical atrophy
until later stages. In a 2012 study conducted by the researchers at Queen’s
University in Canada, subjects were separated into groups by dementia severity
and age. Among tests such as the Distorted Tune Test and Familiarity Decision
Test, Alzheimer’s patients seemed to possess an intact semantic musical memory.
Even in moderate-to-severe Alzheimer’s groups, study participants were able to
recognize familiar lyrics and melodies (Cuddy et al., 2012). The study
accounted for the possible confounding variable of prior musical experience,
finding that music experience has no significant impact on cognition between
the groups. Whether or not music therapy may help AD patients recollect
episodic memories (events and people associated with the music played, for
instance a Sinatra recording from the ‘50s) is still unclear, but the retention
of semantic memory serves as the foundation for non-invasive care. This finding
is amazingly compounded by a wide range of real world examples: videos from
memory care centers exhibit patients who cannot remember their spouses, yet are
capable of singing along with their favorite musical tracks.
It’s not just
musical memory, however, that is bolstered by musical therapy. In 2007, a group
of Italian biologists coined the Vivaldi effect after conducting a study on a
group of senior citizens. The Vivaldi effect is described as the improvement in
cognitive performance (measured by Digit Span and Word Fluency tests)
associated with administration of “Spring” from Vivaldi’s Four Seasons. Not
only were the senior citizens able to comprehend the experimenters’ tasks just
as effectively, the means scores of control and treatment groups differed by as
much as a point in the digit span test and a staggering 6 points in the word
fluency test (Mammarella et al., 2007). The central goal of both tests was to
assess the rapid recall and superficial memory of participants, suggesting that
music may provide an alternative pathway for restoring or (at the very least)
retaining reminiscences. As a more recent example, a nursing home in Turkey was
the subject of a controlled music therapy trial. The nurses and associated
researchers separated a group of 30 Alzheimer’s patients into even control and
therapy treatment groups. Analysis by ANOVA and t-tests revealed that the
treatment group enjoyed a large positive effect in terms of Standard
Mini-Mental State Examinations (SMMSE) scores and adaptation level after five
weeks of biweekly music therapy (Kayaaslan & Lӧs, 2025). It is worth
noting, however, that this journal article doesn’t specify how the music was
chosen, or whether tracks were personalized for different patients. It also
doesn’t cover accessory effects of music, instead focusing only on cognition
and failing to consider hormonal dynamics, a topic explored by the next two
studies in this review.
Apart
from improving memory and cognition, different styles of music are also
hormonal stimulants. The human endocrine system is both diverse and complex,
with increasing connections being drawn to the nervous system. One of the
simplest examples is that of the pituitary gland: nestled in the human brain,
it produces the physiological foundation of pleasure and development. The
coupling of spontaneous nervous impulses with long-term hormonal signals has
long served the subject of neurologists’ fascinations. In the human body, the
steroid hormones testosterone and estrogen production peak during adolescent
puberty, and gradually decline with aging. While their commonly-acknowledged
functions relate to sexual development and maturity, both hormones also exhibit
neuroprotective properties (Vest & Pike, 2012). A team of Japanese
scientists based in Nara attempted to explore the connection between
testosterone and estrogen and neurodegeneration, with a clinical focus on music
therapy. This study defined music therapy as having both a music stimulation
component and a human connection component, as executed by a music therapist.
The music therapy group in particular showed a spike in both estrogen and
testosterone levels, exhibiting a significant increase as compared to the
control and music-only groups (Toyoshima et al., 2012). Thinking about this
retrospectively, music therapy composed of patient-specific music and
interaction with the music therapist has the potential to turn back the hands
of time and rejuvenate brain physiology and structure. Perhaps, music therapy
and its hormonal effects are a hidden wellspring of neuro-cognitive youth. The
success of the above study lends extra cause to music therapy, as it can
achieve the same ends as hormone replacement therapy without running the risk
of associated heart disease and stroke. Apart from simple cognition, music
therapy may also allow patients to lead lives socially and emotionally,
enabling them to free themselves, if just for a moment, from the chains of dementia.
While
Alzheimer’s disease and dementia take a heavy cognitive toll on patients, it
often affects their psyche and social-emotional health even more significantly.
The behavioral changes present in even early-stage dementia may be sufficient
to induce societal stigma and isolation. Common signs of Alzheimer’s disease
are linked to fear, anxiety, depression, and confusion (National Institute on
Aging, 2024). Even as the malady takes its course and there are relatively few
ways to decelerate its progression, the bottom line is that music therapy can
provide comfort to patients and their families. A European survey study
employed a qualitative approach to interviews with music therapists
representing different nations. One of the most provocative findings was that
Alzheimer’s disease and dementia distances couples primarily due to shifting
feelings as well as redefining roles. The music therapists didn’t just play
music for the estranged couples grappling with dementia; they also acted as
connectors, ultimately assisting in bridging the widening gap that the “elderly
malady” causes (Stedje et al., 2024). Music therapy may also moderate the
adverse effects of dementia on patients’ behaviors. Mild-to-moderate stage
dementia and Alzheimer’s disease presents as moderate-to-advanced cortical
atrophy, meaning neuronal networks in the cortex have started dying from the
toxicity of tau tangles. As the frontal and temporal lobes of the cortex are
especially affected, personality and perception start to slip away from patients.
In this vulnerable transition, medical practitioners often encounter patients
experiencing delusions, aggression, and hallucinations. These conditions were
all shown to have improved among geriatric patients from Murcia in Spain, where
university neurologists personalized music therapy for each individual based on
preferences. All mean scores in the Neuropsychiatric Index for delusions,
agitation, and hallucinations were reduced by 1.00 or more, and the effect
sizes indicated were large and statistically significant (Gallego & Garcia,
2017). Notable was the influence of music therapy after only four sessions of
music therapy, potentially pointing to more sustained and pronounced effects
from consistent longer periods of treatment. Reduction in agitations and
delusions enable dementia patients to be more social and warm towards fellow
patients, their families, and primary caretakers. While the previous study
focused on the specific effects of targeted music therapy, a randomized
controlled study in Finland seeked to generalize its results to several
dimensions of patients’ well being. Ninety patient-caretaker groups were
randomized to a control cohort with no musical activity, a music-listening
cohort, or a singing cohort. The cohorts were followed over a ten-week period,
with each week possessing a different theme. Day-to-day musical activity in
both the music-listening and singing groups built off of previous trials in
that the patients enjoyed an increase in emotional health; music solicited
emotional responses in advanced dementia patients as well. Generally, the
music-listening group was shown to have an improvement in quality of life,
whereas the singing group displayed increased memory on top of emotional
well-being of family members (Särkämö et
al., 2013). As seen from this study, music therapy may be beneficial to all
parties involved in the treatment of dementia, and enables patients and their
families to reunite emotionally and spiritually, even if only for a while.
There are caveats to the music therapy’s efficacy, however, especially given
music therapy’s use as an umbrella term. In order to analyze whether music
therapy is a true alternative to pharmacological interventions, its
personalized, highly-specific nature must first be addressed.
From
the review and analysis of the above literature, it may seem that music therapy
is the risk-free, established solution to finally ridding the scourge of
neurodegenerative disease. There is one overarching inconsistency, granted. One
observation the reader may draw from the aforementioned studies is that all
studies varied in their definition of music therapy, and approached the music
therapy treatment group differently. The ten-week personalized and themed music
therapy period in Finland starkly contrasted with the sentinel surveillance of
music therapists scattered across Europe. There is no set standard for music
therapy as a whole, but perhaps it should be kept open to individual
interpretation and design. Current ascendancy of music therapy is no different
from the rise of precision medicine in the 21st century; despite sharing 99.9%
of the human genome, individuals differ on physiology, behavior, and
preferences. This begs the question: will a standardized approach to music
therapy result in the most potent positive effect on dementia patients? Most
likely not. Differing responses to personalized playlists were recorded and
analyzed in a study performed on a cohort of 99 dementia patients. Most
patients were subjected to 3 playlists of songs put together from suggestions
from family members. While the patients’ facial expressions did indicate that
they enjoyed the personalized playlists, the effect ranged from marginal to
significant (Garrido et al., 2018). For apathetic patients also suffering from depression,
the personalized music playlists increased the facial muscle activation of
muscles indicating sadness. The results of this study should be heralded as a
support of personalized music therapy, and otherwise treated with a grain of
salt. “Music therapy” in the context of this study only consisted of playing
music to patients, and facial expressions may not have been the most reliable
way to measure patient enjoyment. One fact is clear: patients were familiar
with the music played, which likely resurfaced melancholy episodic or musical
memories. To implement music therapy in any context or form, it must first be
adapted and personalized to the patient. A special example of this process was
exhibited by the Toronto Rehabilitation Institute. While trying to develop a
music-based digital therapeutic for dementia patients, interdisciplinary
neurologists and psychologists considered the time and resources it would
require to design personalized music therapy for each individual patient. As
expressed in the journal paper, there are plans drawn up to build such a
prototype, focusing on personalization and application of music being played to
patients. A machine learning model, BioMIR, would predict how a piece would
affect patients’ moods, while also adjusting after being trained to a specific
case (Russo et al., 2023). Such a device would not take the place of licensed
music therapists; rather, it would provide a patient-caretaker interface, while
possibly improving the well-being of both the patients and their caretakers.
The face of music therapy will only continue to advance and improve, and it is
difficult to estimate how bringing AI into the equation will affect, for better
or for worse, the quality and specificity of mankind’s miraculous relationship with
music.
Alzheimer’s disease and dementia hasn’t ceased to eat away at elderly populations. What was known in ancient times as a “mental wasting ailment” continues to haunt mankind, with its specter looming over developed societies and an aging planet. Despite decades of progress, a definitive cure remains elusive. In light of these bleak prospects, a wide variety of interventions and therapies are available to mitigate the neuropsychiatric symptoms of neurodegeneration. The interventions range from hormone replacement to cholinesterase inhibitors, but these drugs have been shown to possess adverse side effects; the goal should be to not make patients suffer more than they already have. A gradual upward trend in interest towards music therapy for dementia and Alzheimer’s over the past two decades, meanwhile, portrays music therapy as a possible alternative to medications. Personalized music therapy alongside frequent interaction with family members and therapists has been indicated to have a pronounced effect on dementia patients’ memory, cognitive function, hormonal balance, and even social-emotional health. While music therapy has the potential to be the crown jewel of alternative care in neurodegeneration, health professionals will have to devote more resources to research and implementation of personalization and patient-specific care. The adoption of music therapy on a broad scale will be an indication that mankind has finally come to terms with its past, and with the natural cycle of aging - what better way to do so than with non-invasive, enjoyable music?
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